Occurrence and distribution of carbamazepine, nicotine, estrogenic compounds, and their transformation products in wastewater from various treatment plants and the aquatic environment.

The concentrations and fates of carbamazepine and metabolites (CBMs), nicotine and metabolites (NCTs), estrogenic compounds and metabolites (Es) in various water samples were investigated. Different concentrations were found for water from different sources. The concentrations of these pharmaceuticals and personal care products and their metabolites in human waste treatment plant (HTP) influents (0.08-173 µg L-1) were higher than in the other influent samples and the lowest levels were observed in hospital wastewater treatment plant influents (0.03-7.33 µg L-1). The concentrations were higher in HTP effluents (0.01-11.2 µg L-1) than in the other effluent samples and lowest in sewage treatment plant effluents (0.003-1.26 µg L-1). The NCTs were the most frequently detected pharmaceuticals and personal care products (concentration range 0.05-89.6 µg L-1) in the wastewater treatment plant influents, but the CBMs were found at the highest concentrations (0.003-6.88 µg L-1). 10, 11-Dihydro-10, 11-dihydroxycarbamazepine was the most abundant of the CBMs in the wastewater treatment plants and water samples. Trans-3'-hydroxycotinine was dominant in the HTP and hospital wastewater treatment plant influents, whereas the parent NCT was dominant in the sewage treatment plant influents and in all the effluent and other water samples. Estriol was the dominant estrogenic compound in the HTP and hospital wastewater treatment plant influents. Estriol and estrone were found in many of the HTP influents, but estrone was dominant in the effluent and other water samples. The total removal efficiencies for the CBMs, NCTs, and estrogenic compounds for the treatment plants were -101% to 56%, 2.9%-99%, and >98%, respectively.

Evaluation of pharmaceuticals and personal care products with emphasis on anthelmintics in human sanitary waste, sewage, hospital wastewater, livestock wastewater and receiving water.

We investigated 33 pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) with emphasis on anthelmintics and their metabolites in human sanitary waste treatment plants (HTPs), sewage treatment plants (STPs), hospital wastewater treatment plants (HWTPs), livestock wastewater treatment plants (LWTPs), river water and seawater. PPCPs showed the characteristic specific occurrence patterns according to wastewater sources. The LWTPs and HTPs showed higher levels (maximum 3000 times in influents) of anthelmintics than other wastewater treatment plants, indicating that livestock wastewater and human sanitary waste are one of principal sources of anthelmintics. Among anthelmintics, fenbendazole and its metabolites are relatively high in the LWTPs, while human anthelmintics such as albendazole and flubendazole are most dominant in the HTPs, STPs and HWTPs. The occurrence pattern of fenbendazole's metabolites in water was different from pharmacokinetics studies, showing the possibility of transformation mechanism other than the metabolism in animal bodies by some processes unknown to us. The river water and seawater are generally affected by the point sources, but the distribution patterns in some receiving water are slightly different from the effluent, indicating the influence of non-point sources.

Characteristic occurrence patterns of micropollutants and their removal efficiencies in industrial wastewater treatment plants.

The concentrations and removal efficiencies of various kinds of micropollutants were investigated and the relationships between the input sources of industrial wastewater and occurrence patterns of each micropollutant were identified at nine on-site industrial wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). The distribution pattern of each compound varied according to the WWTP type and several micropollutants were significantly related with specific industries: chlorinated phenols (ClPhs) with paper and metal industries, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) with petrogenic- and pyrogenic-related industries, polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) with the paper industry, and chlorinated benzenes (ClBzs) with dye-related industries. The activated sludge (AS) process was very efficient in the removal of ClPhs and PAHs, and the filtration process in the removal of PCDD/Fs and 1,4-dioxane. Generally, the removal efficiencies of each micropollutant varied according to the WWTP type.

Assessment of fates of estrogens in wastewater and sludge from various types of wastewater treatment plants.

We measured five estrogens in the wastewater samples from the municipal wastewater treatment plants (M-WWTPs), livestock wastewater treatment plants (L-WWTPs), hospital WWTPs (H-WWTPs) and pharmaceutical manufacture WWTPs (P-WWTPs) in Korea. The L-WWTPs showed the highest total concentration (0.195-10.4 µg L(-1)) of estrogens in the influents, followed by the M-WWTPs (0.028-1.15 µg L(-1)), H-WWTPs (0.068-0.130 µg L(-1)) and P-WWTPs (0.015-0.070 µg L(-1)). Like the influents, the L-WWTPs (0.003-0.729 µg L(-1)) and the M-WWTPs (0.001-0.299µgL(-1)) also showed higher total concentration of estrogens in the effluents than the H-WWTPs (0.002-0.021 µg L(-1)) and P-WWTPs (0.011 µg L(-1) in one sample). The L-WWTPs (37.5-543 µg kg(-1), dry weight) showed higher total concentrations in sludge than the M-WWTPs (3.16-444 µg kg(-1), dry weight) like the wastewater. The distribution of estrogens in the WWTPs may be affected by their metabolism in the human body, their transition through biological treatment processes, and their usage for livestock growth. Unlike the concentration results, the daily loads of estrogens from the M-WWTPs were the highest, which is related to the high capacities of WWTPs.

Occurrence and distribution of pharmaceuticals in wastewater from households, livestock farms, hospitals and pharmaceutical manufactures.

Twenty-four pharmaceuticals were measured in wastewater from 12 municipal wastewater treatment plants (M-WWTPs), four livestock WWTPs (L-WWTPs), four hospital WWTPs (H-WWTPs) and four pharmaceutical manufacture WWTPs (P-WWTPs). The total concentration of pharmaceuticals in the influent samples was highest in the L-WWTPs followed by the P-WWTPs, H-WWTPs and M-WWTPs. The effluents had different patterns of pharmaceuticals than their corresponding influents because of the different fate of each compound in the WWTPs. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) were the most dominant in the influents from the M-WWTPs and P-WWTPs, while antibiotics were dominantly detected in the L-WWTP. In the H-WWTP influents, NSAIDs, caffeine and carbamazepine were dominant. In the P-WWTPs, the distribution of pharmaceuticals in the effluents varied with sampling sites and periods. The M-WWTP influents had the highest daily loads, while the effluents showed somewhat similar levels in all source types.

Evaluation of the fate of perfluoroalkyl compounds in wastewater treatment plants.

Recent studies have shown that the wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) is a significant source of perfluoroalkyl compounds (PFCs) in natural water. In this study, 10 PFCs were analyzed in influent and effluent wastewater and sludge samples in 15 municipal, 4 livestock and 3 industrial WWTPs in Korea. The observed distribution pattern of PFCs differed between the wastewater and sludge samples. Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) was dominant in the sludge samples with a concentration ranging from 3.3 to 54.1 ng/g, whereas perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) was dominant in wastewater and ranged from 2.3 to 615 ng/L and 3.4 to 591 ng/L in influent and effluent wastewater, respectively. Principal component analysis (PCA) results provided an explanation for this variation in PFC distribution patterns in the aqueous and sludge samples. The fates of PFCs in the WWTPs were related with the functional groups. The PFOS concentrations tended to decrease after treatment in most WWTPs, whereas PFOA increased. The different fates of PFOA and PFOS in WWTPs were attributed to the higher organic carbon-normalized distribution coefficient of perfluoroalkylsulfonate (PFASs) than that of the carboxylate analog, indicating the preference of PFASs to partition to sludge. Although industrial WWTPs contained high concentration of PFCs, they are not the main source of PFCs in Korean water environment because of their small release amount. WWTPs located in big cities discharged more PFCs, suggesting household sewage is one of the significant sources of PFCs contamination in the environment.

Occurrence and fate of pharmaceuticals in wastewater treatment plants and rivers in Korea.

We measured 25 pharmaceuticals in ten municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), one hospital WWTP and five rivers in Korea. In the municipal WWTP influents, acetaminophen, acetylsalicylic acid and caffeine showed relatively high concentrations. The occurrence of pharmaceuticals in the wastewater seems to be influenced by production and consumption of pharmaceuticals. The hospital WWTP influent showed higher total concentrations of pharmaceuticals than the municipal WWTPs, and caffeine, ciprofloxacin and acetaminophen were dominant. In the rivers, caffeine was dominant, and the distribution of pharmaceuticals was related to the inflow of the wastewater. In the municipal WWTPs, the concentrations of acetaminophen, caffeine, acetylsalicylic acid, ibuprofen and gemfibrozil decreased by over 99%. The decrease of these pharmaceuticals occurred mainly during the biological processes. In the physico-chemical processes, the decrease of pharmaceuticals was insignificant except for some cases. In the hospital WWTP, ciprofloxacin, acetylsalicylic acid, acetaminophen and carbamazepine showed the decrease rates of over 80%.

Distribution and formation of chlorophenols and bromophenols in marine and riverine environments.

To understand the distribution and formation of chlorophenols (CPs) and bromophenols (BPs), we analyzed water and sediment samples collected from the riverine areas and the marine environments near a nuclear power plant (NPP) in Korea. In the seawater, only BPs (2,4-dibromophenol and 2,4,6-tribromophenol) were detected, while CPs and BPs (4-chlorophenol, 2,6-dichlorophenol, 2,4,6-trichlorophenol and 2,4,6-tribromophenol) were detected in the riverine water. 2,4-DBP (0.531-32.7 ng/L) in the seawater was detected in sites near the NPP and 2,4,6-TBP (0.378-20.2 ng/L) was found in most of the seawater. In the riverine water, the sample near the industrial complex (118 ng/L) showed a greater total concentration than others (0.510-7.64 ng/L). In the marine sediments, BPs (99.0-553 ng/g dry weight) showed higher concentrations than CPs (0.145-16.1 ng/g dry weight). The BPs levels (1.01-8.55 ng/g dry weight) in the riverine sediments were much lower (10-500 times) than those in the marine sediments. The distribution patterns of CPs and BPs between the marine and riverine environments differed, with relatively high levels of BPs appearing in the marine environments due to natural formation except for anthropogenic sources. The chlorination process of the NPP also seems to form BPs (2-bromophenol, 2,4-dibromophenol and 2,4,6-tribromophenol). However, the effluents had an influence on the seawater near the NPP (about 2 km). In the riverine environments, CPs were dominant, which are related to the industrial complex. Thus, CPs and BPs in the marine and riverine environments are generated via various routes such as anthropogenic formation and biosynthesis.

Analysis and evaluation of chlorinated persistent organic compounds and PAHs in sludge in Korea.

The concentrations of 12 POPs listed in the Stockholm convention, chlorophenols (CPs) and PAHs were investigated in sludge samples from wastewater and sewage treatment plants (WWTPs and STPs). The concentrations of PCDD/Fs in the wastewater sludge ranged from 0.189 to 1092 ng-TEQkg(-1) dry wt., and most of the sludge samples had levels below the EU guideline for the land application of PCDD/Fs (<100 ng-TEQkg(-1) dry wt.) except one sample. Co-PCB congeners were analyzed from four WWTPs, with total concentrations ranging from 0.265 to 26.6 ng-TEQkg(-1) dry wt., which were similar to the results obtained from previous studies. The levels of PCDD/Fs and Co-PCBs varied according to the main source of the influent to each WWTP and the paper industry was the main source of these compounds in the sludge due to the chlorine bleaching process. In case of OCPs, HCB and p,p'-DDE were detected at relatively high levels in the sludge samples compared to other target compounds, ranging from 1.30 to 21.5 microg kg(-1) dry wt. and 0.758 to 14.8 microg kg(-1) dry wt., respectively. Different OCP distribution patterns were observed according to sludge types, with HCB and DDTs being dominant in the sludge from WWTPs and STPs, respectively. The total levels of PAHs and CPs ranged from 1.24 to 44.9 mg kg(-1) dry wt. and 0.340 to 3.85 mg kg(-1) dry wt., respectively. The PAHs and CPs were also shown to have various distribution patterns, possibly due to the different wastewater sources to the WWTPs.